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Linux Notes
Table of Contents
= I. = Unix …………………………̷= 0;…………………………= 230;…………………………&= #8230;….. Page 2
= II. = Linux …………………………̷= 0;…………………………= 230;…………………………&= #8230;…. Page 2
= III. = Attributes of Linux …………………………̷= 0;…………………………= 230;………………… Page 2
= IV. = Linux HW requirements …………………………̷= 0;…………………………= 230;…………... Page 3
= V. = BIOS ………………R= 30;…………………………&#= 8230;…………………………= ………………. Page 4
= VI. = Dual booting …………………………̷= 0;…………………………= 230;……………………….. Page 4
= a. = Dual boot configurations …………………………̷= 0;…………..………………&= #8230;..…… Page 4
= VII. = Installation …………………………̷= 0;…………………………= 230;…………………………. Page 4
= VIII. = Type of partitions …………………………̷= 0;…………………………= 230;…………………. Page 5
= IX. = User accounts …………………………̷= 0;…………………………= 230;……………………… Page 5
= a. = UID …………………………̷= 0;…………………………= 230;…………………………&= #8230;.. Page 5
= b. GID …………………………̷= 0;…………………………= 230;…………………………&= #8230;.. Page 5
= c. = Passwd …………………………̷= 0;…………………………= 230;…………………………. Page 5
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; i. &nb= sp; Creating a user (Example) …………………………̷= 0;………………………….. Page 6
= X. = Group format (Example) …………………………̷= 0;…………………......................&#= 8230;……. Page 6
= a. = Create a home directory & Example …………………..………= 230;……………………… Page 6
= b. Shadow Password …………………………̷= 0;………...………..….……R= 30;……………. Page 6
= XI. = Configuring a GUI …………………………̷= 0;……………..……………&= #8230;………………. Page 6
= XII. = Boot loaders …………………………̷= 0;……………………...……= ……………………….. Page 7
= XIII. = Setting up devices …………………………̷= 0;………………...…………= ………………….. Page 7
= XIV. = Linux sessions …………………………̷= 0;………………………..…&= #8230;…………………… Page 8
= XV. = Creating passwords …………………………̷= 0;……………………..……&= #8230;……………… Page 8
= XVI. = Groups …………………………̷= 0;…………………………= 230;……..……………………= ;… Page 8
= XVII. Graphical user interface (GUI) …………………………̷= 0;…………...………………= …….. Page 8
= XVIII. Key sequenc= es …………………………̷= 0;…………………………= 230;..…………………… Page 9
= XIX. = Kernel key mappings …………………………̷= 0;………………………..…&= #8230;…………….. Page 9
= XX. = What is a shell …………………………̷= 0;…………………………= 230;…..…………………. Page 9
= XXI. = Basic shell function …………………………̷= 0;…………………………= 230;..………………. Page 9
= XXII. Basics of BASH shell …………………………̷= 0;…………………………= 230;..…………….. Page 10
= XXIII. Logging out= of and shutting down a Linux system …………………………̷= 0;…………….. Page 10
= XXIV. Linux file = system …………………………̷= 0;…………………………= 230;………………….. Page 11
= XXV. Linux file system hierarchy …………………………̷= 0;…………………………= 230;……… Page 12
= XXVI. Basic Linux= file commands …………………………̷= 0;…………………………..&= #8230;…….. Page 13
= XXVII. = Mounting devices …………………………̷= 0;…………………………= 230;…………….. Page 14
= XXVIII. = Finding help for Linux …………………………̷= 0;…………………….……&#= 8230;……… Page 15
= I. = Unix
= a. = POSIX – Portable Operating System Interface for computer environments.
= b. FREE Software
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; i. &nb= sp; Can be d/l’d for free from the internet
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; ii. &n= bsp; Governed by GPL (General Public License)
= c. = History
<=
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Started at
= 1. Released by AT&T/Bell laboratories in 1972
= 2. Released under the name BSD (Berkley Software Distribution)
= 3. Version V of Unix consolidated the other versions of BSD
= a. = System V release 3
= b. BSD
= c. = Sun Micro-systems OS
= d. XENIX
= e. = Microsoft’s desktop version of Unix
= 4. HP & IBM started a new initiative called the ‘Open Software Foundation’ in response to Unix laboratories attempts to consolidate Unix.
= II. = Linux
= a. = Free software that is constantly evolving
= b. Linus Torvalds personal project while working on minus
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; i. &nb= sp; Released first production version in 1994
= c. = Kernel benefits
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; i. &nb= sp; Open source
= 1. usually found in /usr/src/linux/kernel
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; ii. &n= bsp; small size
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; iii. &= nbsp; very fast when compiled properly
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; iv. &n= bsp; only uses lines of code that are necessary
= d. GPL (General Public License)
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; i. &nb= sp; Cannot be sold
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; ii. &n= bsp; However, you can give the software away and charge = for services such as;
= 1. Tech support
= 2. Installation and configuration
= e. = Distributions
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; i. &nb= sp; Red Hat
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; ii. &n= bsp; Slackware
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; iii. &= nbsp; Debian/GNU
= 1. Volunteer network
= 2. Open source
= 3. Over 1000 packages
= 4. Not as user-friendly as other variations
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; iv. &n= bsp; Caldera
= 1. Stable
= 2. Easy to install
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; v. &nb= sp; SuSE
= 1. YaST administration tool used for configuration
= 2. Extra video card support (accelerators)
= III. = Attributes of Linux
= a. = Designed not to crash
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; i. &nb= sp; Use ‘uptimetool’ to monitor uptime
= b. Server influence
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; i. &nb= sp; Built as a server not a workstation
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; ii. &n= bsp; Limits user rights
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; iii. &= nbsp; Ability to designate access
= c. = Appeal of Linux
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; i. &nb= sp; Flexibility of shells (at least 4, possibly more)
= 1. Cshell
= 2. Bourne again shell
= 3. TC shell
= 4. Korn shell
= 5. Shells define the way that commands, which are input, will work
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; ii. &n= bsp; Interaction
= 1. Command-line interface
= 2. GUI (Graphical User Interface)
= a. = X-window or X11
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; iii. &= nbsp; Extremely configurable
= 1. You can compile only the items you need in the kernel & leave everything el= se out.
= a. = Makes the kernel very small
= b. Makes the kernel very fast
= d. Trade-Offs
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; i. &nb= sp; Learning curve
= 1. Must know Unix commands and file system structure
= 2. Usually no tech support
= 3. Usually no manuals
= 4. Difficulty configuring certain devices
= 5. Lack of commercial software
= e. = Star office vs Open office
= f. = Selecting a distribution
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; i. &nb= sp; Beginning users
= 1. Caldera
= 2. Mandrake
= 3. Red Hat
= 4. SuSE
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; ii. &n= bsp; Intermediate users
= 1. Turbo
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; iii. &= nbsp; Advanced users
= 1. Debian/GNU
= 2. Slackware
= g. Packages
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; i. &nb= sp; Generally distributed as tarballs (Compressed files, same as zip files)
= 1. dpkg – Debian package manager
= 2. RPM – Red Hat package manager
= IV. = Hardware requirements
= a. = Minimum
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; i. &nb= sp; 8 MB or RAM
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; ii. &n= bsp; 386 SX CPU
= b. Optimal
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; i. &nb= sp; 128 MB RAM
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; ii. &n= bsp; Pentium 1 running at 200 MHz
= c. = Hard Drives
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; i. &nb= sp; Up to 2 GB
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; ii. &n= bsp; Possible difficulties with SCSI drives depending up= on interface drivers
= d. Video systems
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; i. &nb= sp; CGA
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; ii. &n= bsp; EGA
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; iii. &= nbsp; VGA
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; iv. &n= bsp; SVGA
= e. = Swap space
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; i. &nb= sp; Should have at least twice the amount of RAM
= f. = Printers & Modems
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; i. &nb= sp; Printers – Problems with getting drives
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; ii. &n= bsp; Modems – No problems under newer kernels
= V. = BIOS settings
= a. = Categories
<=
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<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; ii. &n= bsp; Advanced
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; iii. &= nbsp; Power
= b. Sub-categories
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; i. &nb= sp; Should only be changed by experienced users
= VI. = Dual booting (GRUB & LILO)
= a. = LILO (Linux loader)
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; i. &nb= sp; Used most often
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; ii. &n= bsp; Used on multi-partitioned machines
= b. loadlin (utility)
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; i. &nb= sp; Enable Linux to be installed from a DOS based comma= nd prompt
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; ii. &n= bsp; Can be used to start the dual-boot process on a win= dows machine
= c. = GRUB
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; i. &nb= sp; Older
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; ii. &n= bsp; Older version is for single OS boots
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; iii. &= nbsp; Newer version can be used on multi-boot machines
= d. X-Configuration (XFree86)
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; i. &nb= sp; Setup
= 1. Mouse options
= 2. Keyboard options
= 3. Video card
= a. = Never use option to select graphic card
= b. X-client is not configurable
= c. = X-server will change depending upon which video card you have
= 4. Monitor
= a. = Horizontal and vertical refresh rates (Very important)
= b. Setting rates too high for old monitors can destroy them
= c. = Mode selection
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; i. &nb= sp; Resolution
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; ii. &n= bsp; Color-depth
= e. = Dual boot configuration
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; i. &nb= sp; Load both on same drive /partition
= 1. Must have enough disk space for both operating systems
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; ii. &n= bsp; Load each on different drives/partitions
= 1. Can use fips for partitionings
= 2. Easiest, not necessarily the most efficient
= f. = Making a system multi-bootable
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; i. &nb= sp; LILO
= 1. Example of four partitions
= a. = Windows must be on the first partition between the 0 and 500th cylinder.=
= b. Linux root/slash partition must be between the 512th and 1009th cylinder range.
= c. = Linux swap partition 1001st and 1009th cylinder range
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; i. &nb= sp; 64 Mbytes
= d. Linux Home partition 1010th and 2048th cylinder range
= 2. If Windows is already on a partition you have to use fips to configure the res= t
= 3. It’s best to load Linux first then Windows =
= VII. = Installation
= a. = How to install
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; i. &nb= sp; GUI
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; ii. &n= bsp; Text mode
= b. What to install
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; i. &nb= sp; Compilers (if needed – dependencies)
= c. = Servers
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; i. &nb= sp; Web services
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; ii. &n= bsp; Email services
= VIII. = Types of partitions
= a. = Linux native partitions =3D Type 83
= b. Swap partitions =3D Type 82
= c. = Boot & Root partitions
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; i. &nb= sp; Boot partition best if installed between 1st and 1024th cylinder of the hard drive on a native partition
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; ii. &n= bsp; Root partition (or slash /) is where the bulk of the system is loaded
= 1. Make certain that root (aka: slash /) has enough room
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; iii. &= nbsp; Partition managing tools
= 1. Fdisk
= a. = most popular
= b. Type m> at the fdisk command prompt for commands & users
= c. = Can partition drives, but does not install files
= d. Type /dev/hda
= 2. Cfdisk
= a. = easier to use than fdisk
= b. navigation performed with arrows
= c. = Can partition drives, but does not install files
= 3. Diskdruid
= a. = GUI
= b. Automatically sets up partitions
= IX. = User accounts
= a. = UID (User Identification)
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; i. &nb= sp; /etc/passwd
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; ii. &n= bsp; Most system built user will have a number below 100=
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; iii. &= nbsp; When the computer automatically builds a new accoun= t, by default, it starts at 500
= b. GID (Group Identification)
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; i. &nb= sp; /etc/group
= c. = Passwd format (Creating a user)
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; i. &nb= sp; Vi /etc/passwd
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; ii. &n= bsp; Example
= 1. username:x(etc shadow – for password):500(UID):500(GID):full name of user:/home/username(user’s home directory):/bin/bash(determines which shell to use)
= 2. username:x:500:500:User Name:/home/username:/bin/bash
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; iii. &= nbsp; creating a user (Step-by-Step)
= 1. Type vi /etc/passwd
= 2. Peck the ‘insert’ key on your keyboard
= 3. Hold the keyboard’s ‘down’ arrow key until you are at the bott= om of the file
= 4. Peck the ‘Return’ key
= 5. Type the username
= 6. :
= 7. x
= 8. :
= 9. next available user id, most likely 501
= 10. :
= 11. 501
= 12. :
= 13. /home= /username
= 14. :
= 15. /bin/= bash
= 16. Peck = the escape key to exit ‘insert’ more
= 17. Type = :wq – for exit, write, & quit
= X. = Group format (Creating a group for a user)
= a. = Vi /etc/group
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; i. &nb= sp; Example
= 1. Peck the ‘insert’ key on your keyboard
= 2. Hold the keyboard’s ‘down’ arrow key until you are at the bott= om of the file
= 3. Peck the ‘Return’ key
= 4. Type the group name
= 5. :
= 6. x
= 7. :
= 8. 501
= 9. :
= 10. Peck = the escape key to exit ‘insert’ more
= 11. Type = :wq – for exit, write, & quit
= b. Create home directory for new user
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; i. &nb= sp; Copy skeleton directory located in /etc/skel into t= he /home directory, rename it, then reapply permissions so that the correct us= er can get into it.
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; ii. &n= bsp; Step-by-Step
= 1. Type cd /home
= 2. ls
= 3. cp –r /etc/skel /home
= a. = –r =3D recursive command, it tells it to copy everything in that directory, including sub-directories and everything in them.
= 4. ls
= 5. mv skel student
= a. = renames the skel directory to student
= 6. ls
= 7. chown –R student /home/student
= a. = –R =3D recursive command, pushes the new permissions down to everything in the directory including sub-directories and all the files within them.
= 8. cd /student
= 9. ls –la
= a. = shows a list of all the files in the directory and names the new owner –stu= dent
= c. = Shadow password
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; i. &nb= sp; A suite of tools that makes Linux more secure
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; ii. &n= bsp; Passwords are stored in /etc/shadow
= 1. can only be viewed and edited by root
= d. Script tools for adding and removing users
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; i. &nb= sp; Useradd
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; ii. &n= bsp; Userdel
= XI. = Configuring a GUI
= a. = X-server (XFree86)
= b. X-client
= c. = Window manager (X-window)
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; i. &nb= sp; Fvwm
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; ii. &n= bsp; IceWM
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; iii. &= nbsp; Afterstep
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; iv. &n= bsp; Enlightenment
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; v. &nb= sp; etc…
= d. Desktop environments
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; i. &nb= sp; Provide a consistent look at all applications and desktop
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; ii. &n= bsp; 1st FREE desktop was KDE
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; iii. &= nbsp; Gnome was developed later after encountering licens= ing problems with KDE.
= XII. = Boot Loaders
=
a. =
![3D"Text](3D"LinuxNotes22Mar07_files/image002.gif")
![3D"Text](3D"LinuxNotes22Mar07_files/image003.gif")
=
LILO
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; i. &nb= sp; To view a file type;
= 1. cat /etc/liloconf
= XIII. = Setting up devices
= a. = Devices are stored in an abstraction
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; i. &nb= sp; Located in the /dev directory
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; ii. &n= bsp; Must have an entry for each device
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; iii. &= nbsp; Device abstractions are much like files
= b. Types
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; i. &nb= sp; Character devices
= 1. Can only have a single character read or written to them
= 2. Act very much like a file
= 3. Can only be accessed sequentially
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; ii. &n= bsp; Block devices
= 1. Has file systems on it
= 2. Can only be access in multiples of 1kb
= c. = Plug-n-play devices
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; i. &nb= sp; Kernel 2.2
= 1. Has difficulty detecting ISA pnp devices
= 2. You can use a tool named pnpdump to find isa pnp devices
= 3. You can re-direct the output of pnpdump to /etc/isapnp.conf
= a. = Isapnp.conf has a section for each pnp device and settings for each device
= b. You must go in and comment out lines for devices that do not need settings & uncomment ones that do
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; ii. &n= bsp; Kernel 2.4
= 1. Includes native support for pnp devices
= d. Modules
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; i. &nb= sp; Kinda’ like device drivers in MS Windows
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; ii. &n= bsp; Loadable modules
= 1. Commands for configuring modules
= a. = insmod – automatically loads a module to into the kernel
= b. modprobe – generates a list of modular dependencies
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; i. &nb= sp; loads dependent modules first
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; ii. &n= bsp; loads target module last
= c. = kmod – same as modprobe
= d. depmod-a – makes sure that everything is working
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; i. &nb= sp; displays a list of modules
= e. = list is kept in the /proc directory
= XIV. = Linux Sessions
= a. = Logging in
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; i. &nb= sp; Log-in prompt
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; ii. &n= bsp; Password prompt
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; iii. &= nbsp; Authentication is handled by the password program
= 1. it checks the /etc/passwd file
= 2. it may also check the /etc/shadow file
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; iv. &n= bsp; Compares and authenticates
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; v. &nb= sp; If successful, it gives you a command prompt allowi= ng you to function
= b. Switch user
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; i. &nb= sp; Type ‘su’ to switch users
= 1. root can switch to any user
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; ii. &n= bsp; Type ‘su’ without a user name and the system assumes that you want to go into ‘super user’ mode
= c. = Switch between virtual terminal sessions
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; i. &nb= sp; Hold down the ctrl + alt + F1 through F6 keys to sw= itch between sessions
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; ii. &n= bsp; ctrl + alt + F7 is reserved for the virtual GUI terminal session
= XV. = Creating passwords
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; i. &nb= sp; Change password
= 1. Type passwd & username
= XVI. = Groups
= a. = Scripts
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; i. &nb= sp; Adding
= 1. groupadd –g names
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; ii. &n= bsp; Modifying
= 1. groupmod
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; iii. &= nbsp; Deleting
= 1. groupdel
= XVII. Graphical user interface (GUI)
= a. = Uses XFree86
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; i. &nb= sp; X-window system designed for Linux
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; ii. &n= bsp; Allows your computer to act as both a client and a server at the same time
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; iii. &= nbsp; KDE, Gnome
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; iv. &n= bsp; Operates from the .xinitrc file
= XVIII. Key sequenc= es
= a. = Are a combination of keys that when pressed simultaneously execute a specific command
= b. The ASCII value of the first key in a key sequence should not be a printable AS= CII value
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; i. &nb= sp; Must be composed of non-printing ASCII values
= c. = Key bindings are specified by key name, colon, and function name in the initialization file
= d. Control A – start line return
= e. = Control E – end line return
= f. = Control P & N – cycle through command history
= g. Control D – delete
= XIX. = Kernel Key Mappings
= a. = Def/keymap.map
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; i. &nb= sp; List of code keys and what they do
= XX. = What is a shell
= a. = Sh – basic bourne shell
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; i. &nb= sp; Allows for sophisticated scripting
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; ii. &n= bsp; 1st shell for Linux
= b. Ksh
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; i. &nb= sp; Korn shell
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; ii. &n= bsp; Adds features of C shell to bourne shell
= c. = Csh
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; i. &nb= sp; command set scripting environment
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; ii. &n= bsp; C based language
= d. Bash
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; i. &nb= sp; Bourne again shell
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; ii. &n= bsp; Command line editing
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; iii. &= nbsp; History
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; iv. &n= bsp; File name completion
= e. = Tcsh
<=
span
style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs=
p; &=
nbsp; &nbs=
p; &=
nbsp; &nbs=
p;
i. &nb=
sp;
Enhanced
= f. = Zsh – offer sh and ksh compatibility modes
= XXI. = Basic shell function
= a. = Shell redirection
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; i. &nb= sp; Everything is a file in Linux
= b. Piping
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; i. &nb= sp; > pipes output
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; ii. &n= bsp; < pipes input
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; iii. &= nbsp; Example
= 1. ls –la | more
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; iv. &n= bsp; Shows one screen at a time
= c. = Shell file scripting
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; i. &nb= sp; An executable file that contains shell commands, similar to a bat file DOS
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; ii. &n= bsp; Which ones are read first when starting the bash ed= itor
= 1. script/etc/profile is always read
= a. = next read are in this specific order
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; i. &nb= sp; .bash_profile
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; ii. &n= bsp; .bash_login
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; iii. &= nbsp; .profile
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; iii. &= nbsp; Scripts are interpreted not compiled; therefore they require more resources
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; iv. &n= bsp; Sending jobs to another window
= 1. Example
= a. = Yes > /dev/null
= b. Yes (program) > /dev/null (bit bucket - deleted items)
= c. = Returns nothing
= d. Command history
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; i. &nb= sp; Up arrow
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; ii. &n= bsp; Holds 1000 commands
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; iii. &= nbsp; Viewing processes started within the current shell<= /p>
= 1. Example
= a. = Yes > /dev/null &
= b. Returns [1] (number of processes running) 2447 (process number)
= c. = Actually looks like
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; i. &nb= sp; [1] 2447
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; iv. &n= bsp; Type ‘jobs’
= 1. tells what’s running in the background
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; v. &nb= sp; killing processes
= 1. kill the first job running
= a. = Type
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; i. &nb= sp; kill %1
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; vi. &n= bsp; email
= 1. Example
= a. = Sends a document to someone
= b. Mail user < mytext.text
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; vii. &= nbsp; Stop a process and display the status
= 1. ctrl z
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; viii. = Send a process to the background
= 1. bg %1
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; ix. &n= bsp; Send a process to the foreground
= 1. fg %1
= XXII. Basics of BASH shell
= a. = Command line editing
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; i. &nb= sp; Most Unix shells have a buffering system to store t= ext
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; ii. &n= bsp; You only have to type part of destination directory’s name and the shell will complete it for you
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; iii. &= nbsp; If there are two long filenames with similar names,= the shell will ask you to decide between them
= b. Command history
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; i. &nb= sp; Up and down arrow keys
= c. = Navigation
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; i. &nb= sp; Man – online manual
= 1. Example man bittornado
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; ii. &n= bsp; Ls – list the files in a directory
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; iii. &= nbsp; Cd – change directories
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; iv. &n= bsp; Rm – removes a specified file
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; v. &nb= sp; Rm-f – removes a specified directory and all = of it’s contents
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; vi. &n= bsp; Cp – copies one file to another
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; vii. &= nbsp; More – displays files one screen at a time
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; viii. = Find – searches for a file
= XXIII. Logging out= and shutting down a Linux system
= a. = Process
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; i. &nb= sp; Notifies all logged-on users of shut down
= 1. a file named ‘nologin’ can be modified for users trying to login during shutdown
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; ii. &n= bsp; Login is blocked
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; iii. &= nbsp; All processes are notified with SIGTERM signal
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; iv. &n= bsp; INIT process asks to change the RUNLEVEL of the sys= tem
= b. Improper shutdown
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; i. &nb= sp; Fsck – file system consistency check is perfo= rmed
= c. = Proper shutdown (Done from the command line & can only be executed by root or = su)
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; i. &nb= sp; Shutdown –r now (Reboot)
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; ii. &n= bsp; Shutdown –h now (Halt)
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; iii. &= nbsp; /etc/inittab - enable shutdown by keyboard using Ctrl-alt-del keys
= 1. inittab entry example – ca : :ctrlaltdel:/etc/shutdown –t3 –rf no= w
= d. Remote shutdown
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; i. &nb= sp; When shutdown is called it looks for the file /etc/shutdown.allow.
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; ii. &n= bsp; If this file is present, it then looks to see if ro= ot is logged on.
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; iii. &= nbsp; If these conditions are met, it shuts down the syst= em.
= XXIV. Linux file = system
= a. = Permissions
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; i. &nb= sp; Permission level
= 1. file owner
= 2. owner’s group
= 3. everyone else
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; ii. &n= bsp; symbolic mode
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; iii. &= nbsp; absolute mode
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; iv. &n= bsp; purpose of permissions levels
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; v. &nb= sp; navigate to a folder with files in it
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; vi. &n= bsp; Type ls –la
= 1. –la shows permission attached to each file
<=
span
style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs=
p; &=
nbsp; &nbs=
p; &=
nbsp; &nbs=
p;
vii. &=
nbsp;
d means directory<=
o:p> The next character=
s are
for owner permissions
![](3D"LinuxNotes22Mar07_files/image009.jpg")
= a. = First user listed is the owner
= b. First three permissions attributes belong to the owner
= c. = Next entry listed is the name of the owner’s group
= d. Next three permissions attributes belong to the owner’s group
= e. = Last three attributes are for everyone else
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; i. &nb= sp; The best set of permissions are (r) read, (w) write, and (x) execute
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; ii. &n= bsp; Symbolic Reference - Change permissions on a file i= n a directory
= 1. chmod a+rwx filename gives ev= eryone the ability to read, write, and execute the file.
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; iii. &= nbsp; Absolute Reference – chmod 750 filename
=
1. 750
is a numerical representation of the last three bits of attributes entries<=
/p>
=
2. r-w-x
=3D 4-2-1 =
3. Therefore
these can be broken mathematically to provide variations in permission
attributes =
a. =
r
=3D 4 =
b. w
=3D 2 =
c. =
x
=3D 1 =
d. r(4)
+ x(1) =3D 5, rx =3D 5 =
4. r(4)
+ w(2) + x(1) =3D 7, ow=
ner
permissions, r(4) + x(1) =3D 5<=
/u>,
group permissions, 0 =3D 0<=
/b>,
everyone permissions : all of=
these
combined equals 750 <=
span
style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs=
p; &=
nbsp; &nbs=
p; &=
nbsp; &nbs=
p;
viii. =
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; ix. &n= bsp; Even members of their group should not have full control permissions for the files in another person home directory
= b. Changing ownership
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; i. &nb= sp; Chown instruct filename.txt
= 1. changes filename.txt’s ownership to instruct
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; ii. &n= bsp; Chgrp instruct filename.txt’s group membershi= p
= XXV. Linux file system hierarchy
= a. = Hierarchy website
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; i. &nb= sp; www.pathnam= e.com/fhs
= b. Generally varies by distribution
= c. = Root Directory
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; i. &nb= sp; /bin
= 1. essential commands are stored here
= 2. can be used by users or superusers
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; ii. &n= bsp; /boot
= 1. contains boot files
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; iii. &= nbsp; /dev
= 1. device files are stored
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; iv. &n= bsp; /etc
= 1. configuration and host specific files are stored
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; v. &nb= sp; /home
= 1. users home directories
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; vi. &n= bsp; /lib
= 1. libraries, runtime load libraries, kernel modules are stored
= 2. device drivers
= 3. libraries needed for compilers
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; vii. &= nbsp; /mnt
= 1. mount point for removable media
= 2. CD-ROMs and floppy drives
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; viii. = /opt
= 1. local add-on directory for software packages
= 2. very rarely used
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; ix. &n= bsp; /proc
= 1. an abstraction that keeps a list of currently running processes
= 2. I/O, memory addresses, and things like that
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; x. &nb= sp; /root
= 1. root or superuser’s home directory
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; xi. &n= bsp; /sbin
= 1. essential system administrator command binaries
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; xii. &= nbsp; /tmp
= 1. where temporary files are stored until they can be written to other locations on = the hard drive
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; xiii. = /usr
= 1. secondary hierarchy
= 2. typical location for software installation
= a. = Open Office
= b. Games
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; xiv. &= nbsp; /var
= 1. for variable, constantly evolving data
=
2. server
logs are stored here after being temporarily stored in the /tmp directory
=
d. Two
ways of getting around in the file system <=
span
style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs=
p; &=
nbsp; &nbs=
p; &=
nbsp; &nbs=
p;
i. &nb=
sp;
= 1. when you say that this is exactly where you want to go
= XXVI. Basic Linux= File Commands
= a. = Navigation
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; i. &nb= sp; Cd
= 1. change directory
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; ii. &n= bsp; Pwd
= 1. prints the current working directory (Print Working Directory)
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; iii. &= nbsp; Ls
= 1. list
= b. Directory Modification
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; i. &nb= sp; Mkdir
= 1. make a directory
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; ii. &n= bsp; Rmdir
= 1. remove a directory
= 2. only removes empty directories
= c. = File Modification
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; i. &nb= sp; Cp
= 1. used for copying files and directories
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; ii. &n= bsp; mv
= 1. move
= 2. rename a file
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; iii. &= nbsp; rm
= 1. removes files and directories
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; iv. &n= bsp; Touch
=
1. creates
a small zero bite file, gives date and time it was created, who created it<=
/p>
=
d. File
Viewing <=
span
style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs=
p; &=
nbsp; &nbs=
p; &=
nbsp; &nbs=
p;
i. &nb=
sp;
= 1. views files (cat filename)
= 2. can be used with multiple files
= 3. can be used to concatenate files
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; ii. &n= bsp; Less
= 1. can be used to view files (less filename)
= 2. page file
= 3. more powerful version of more
= 4. can go forward or backward
= 5. output can be piped into other apps
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; iii. &= nbsp; More
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; iv. &n= bsp; Can be used to view files (more filename)
= 1. page file
= e. = Archive Utilities
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; i. &nb= sp; Zcat
= 1. opens a compressed file and views the contents
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; ii. &n= bsp; Tar
= 1. was originally created for storage and retrieval of data on tape
= 2. reliable
= 3. been around since the original versions of Linux
= f. = Information tools
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; i. &nb= sp; Locate
=
1.
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; ii. &n= bsp; File
=
1.
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; iii. &= nbsp; Man
= 1. a
= g. Permission modifiers
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; i. &nb= sp; Chgrp
=
1.
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; ii. &n= bsp; Chmod
=
1.
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; iii. &= nbsp; Chown
= XXVII. = Mounting Devices
= a. = Devices must be mounted by the kernel so that they can be used by the system
= b. /etc/FSTAB
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; i. &nb= sp; Determines who can mount what
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; ii. &n= bsp; Automatically created by linux for floppy and CD-ROM drives that you use them
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; iii. &= nbsp; When mounting a device a device, be careful, because there is no unmount command
= XXVIII. = Finding help for Linux
= a. = Rumored that there is a lack of support for Linux
= b. In reality there is much support for Linux. Generally, it is a matter of sifti= ng through it all to find what you need.
= c. = Methods of finding help
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; i. &nb= sp; Man pages
= 1. there is a man page on virtually every topic in Linux
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; ii. &n= bsp; Mailing lists
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; iii. &= nbsp; Newsgroups
= 1. RSSOwl
= 2. Knode (My favorite)
= 3. Mercury
= 4. Pan
= 5. BNR2
= 6. Newsgrabber
= 7. and many others
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; iv. &n= bsp; Linux help on-line
= 1. Linuxdocs.org – list of howtos and quick references
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; v. &nb= sp; Technical support
= 1. typically cost money and are available for the major distrobutions
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; vi. &n= bsp; IRC – Internet Relay Chat
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; vii. &= nbsp; Books
= XXIX. Using ‘find’ and ‘locate’
= a. = Find
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; i. &nb= sp; Goes through and searches your entire hard drive for files and directories
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; ii. &n= bsp; Takes a long time
= b. Locate
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; i. &nb= sp; Performs searches based on a database
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; ii. &n= bsp; This database must be updated
= 1. updating the database takes a long time
= XXX. The X Window system
= a. = Concepts related to X (Client/Server model)
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; i. &nb= sp; Developed in the 1980’s at MIT
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; ii. &n= bsp; XServer runs on the computer but doesn’t run = any apps
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; iii. &= nbsp; A local client can also run on the computer and is required to run apps
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; iv. &n= bsp; A remote client can run on the computer and is requ= ired to run apps
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; v. &nb= sp; Communicate using X-Protocol
= b. Installing & Configuring X
= c. = Running X
= d. Customizing X window
= e. = Maneuvering in the X display
= f. = Desktop environments
= g. GUI administration tools
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; i. &nb= sp; Xconfigurator
= XXXI. Configuring= X
= a. = Programs used to configure X
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; i. &nb= sp; XF86config
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; ii. &n= bsp; XF86Setup
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; iii. &= nbsp; Xconfigurator
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; iv. &n= bsp; SaX (SuSE version)
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; v. &nb= sp; Turboxcfg
= XXXII. = Running X
= a. = ID level setup in /etc/inittab file determines what runlevel your system will operate at
= b. Changing to runlevel 5 gives you a graphical user login
= XXXIII. = Customizing X
= a. = Desktop manager
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; i. &nb= sp; KDE
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; ii. &n= bsp; Gnome
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; iii. &= nbsp; You should never log on as root, because what you d= o, or what others do while impersonating your credentials could ruin the syste= m
= b. Login manager
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; i. &nb= sp; XDM – Graphical login program
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; ii. &n= bsp; GDM – Graphical login program
= c. = Desktop configuration
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; i. &nb= sp; Using the control panel you can change the desktop theme
= d. Windows managers
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; i. &nb= sp; Used to control the look and feel of the desktop
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; ii. &n= bsp; Responsible for making sure that all of your windows act the same, as far as, maximizing and minimizing.
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; iii. &= nbsp; Works with the desktop manager to give you the right-click functionality and left-click and have it actually do something<= /p>
= e. = Applets
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; i. &nb= sp; Aspect of KDE and Gnome
= XXXIV. = Maneuvering in X
= a. = Utilizing virtual desktops
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; i. &nb= sp; Can be added or removed
= XXXV. = GUI administration tools
= a. = LinuxConf
= b. Turbotools – comes with Turbo Linux
= c. = YAST – Yet Another Setup Program
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; i. &nb= sp; SuSE has updated it’s YAST tools to YAST2
= XXXVI. = Linux Applications
= a. = Text editors
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; i. &nb= sp; Vi & Vim
= 1. Editing modules
= 2. Configuration of Vi
= 3. Has 2 modes
= a. = Command mode – Type
= b. Input mode – Type i
= 4. All Unix/Linux distros come with Vi
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; ii. &n= bsp; Emacs – The lifestyle editor
= 1. Extensible text editor
= 2. Lisp interpreter (Programming lang= uage)
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; iii. &= nbsp; Pico
= 1. Pine composer is a simple text editor distributed as part of the Pine mail progr= am or a separate program
= 2. Commands
= 3. Options
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; iv. &n= bsp; Joe – Joe’s Own Editor
= 1. Program suite of 5 different programs
= a. = Jmacs Emacs emulator
= b. Jpico Pico emulator
= c. = Jstar WordStar clone
= d. Rjoe files specified on the command line
= e. = Joe main controller
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; v. &nb= sp; Cool edit
= 1. Xwindows based text editor
= 2. Supports Python in native mode
= 3. Only included with systems that have the Xwindows interface and is not included = on all distros
= b. Browsers
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; i. &nb= sp; Netscape Communicator Tools
= 1. Navigator
= 2. Mail & News viewer
= 3. Address book
= 4. HTML composer
= 5. Web Server – is available but does not come with Netscape Communicator fo= und with most Linux distros
= 6. Must have Xwindows installed or Netscape will not install on your system
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; ii. &n= bsp; Lynx
= 1. Command line browser
= 2. Options & Printing
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; iii. &= nbsp; Other browsers
= 1. Mosaic
= 2. Mozilla
= 3. Opera
= 4. W3M
= 5. Konquer
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; iv. &n= bsp; Most work with http 1.1 and will view webpage
= c. = Xterm
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; i. &nb= sp; Terminal emulator which allows you to access a comm= and prompt from within the Xwindows interface or the command line interface from within the GUI interface
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; ii. &n= bsp; Very similar to going to a command prompt or DOS pr= ompt from within Windows
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; iii. &= nbsp; Launching any terminal program will launch Xterm
= 1. --leftbar – display a scroll bar on the left side of the screen
= 2. --sl var – how many lines to save that have scrolled off the screen
= 3. --t – force Xterm to start in Tektronix mode
= 4. --title (name) – specifies the title of Xterm window
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; iv. &n= bsp; You can open as many Xterm windows as you like
= d. GNU applications
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; i. &nb= sp; GNU stands for GNU is Not Unix
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; ii. &n= bsp; A movement rather than a definition
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; iii. &= nbsp; The GNU project was started in 1984 by Robert Stall= man
= 1. Designed to provide a FREE operating system to the computing community
= 2. Is FREE, but you can charge for it
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; iv. &n= bsp; Distributed under the copy-left agreement
= e. = Non-GNU applications
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; i. &nb= sp; Not distributed under the general public license
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; ii. &n= bsp; BDS applications
= 1. Behind the GPL license BSD is the second most used license in the world
= 2. Only ensures that the original copyright of the program is protected
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; iii. &= nbsp; The Artistic License
= 1. Combines the strengths of both
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; iv. &n= bsp; Shareware Licensing
= 1. Not governed by any universal license
= 2. Problems with Shareware
= a. = Many programs require a key code that is placed on the menu and unlocks the soft= ware if you decide to pay for it
= b. Most of these key codes have been cracked and many are available on the web
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; v. &nb= sp; Commercial software
= 1. Generally has the most restrictive licensing
= 2. Cost money
= 3. No changes allowed
= 4. Most rigid
= 5. Most heavily enforced
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; vi. &n= bsp; Public Domain software
= 1. No user or group has control of it
= 2. Once in the public domain it is FREE forever
= f. = Printing process
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; i. &nb= sp; Application
= 1. most printing begins here
= 2. usually a word processor
= 3. told to print
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; ii. &n= bsp; LPR – line printer request – accessed w= hen application is told to print
= 1. Reads a configuration file that governs all printers found on a particular system=
= a. = Finds out what type of printer it is
= b. Determines what type of print filter to use to put the information into a format that = the printer can understand
= c. = Takes the information that you are printing and splits it into two files
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; i. &nb= sp; Data file
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; ii. &n= bsp; Control file
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; iii. &= nbsp; Both files are placed into a directory
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; iv. &n= bsp; After this is done, the application and LPR are finished with their part of the printing process
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; iii. &= nbsp; Next LPD – Line Printer Daemon
= 1. Intermittently checks the directory that that particular printer is responsible for
= a. = When it detects something in the directory it actually sends that information to= the printer
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; iv. &n= bsp; LPD can be considered the server and LPR can be considered the client, but they both access different areas of the printcap file which is found in /etc
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; v. &nb= sp; LPQR is used to removed jobs from the printer queue once they are in there
= 1. users can only remove their own printer jobs
= 2. SU can remove any printer job
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; vi. &n= bsp; LPC is the most complex of the printer control comm= ands
= 1. Can perform many functions
= a. = Enable/Disable printers
= b. Changing jobs in a certain printers queue
= c. = Checking the status of the various printers and their spools
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; vii. &= nbsp; Linux doesn’t use print drivers, it uses print filters
= 1. 3 filters are;
= a. = Postscript
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; i. &nb= sp; Works with almost any postscript printer
= b. Magic filter
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; i. &nb= sp; Way of interpreting non-postscript data to virtually any type of print device
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; ii. &n= bsp; Takes what you are working with and converts into a language that any type of printer can understand
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; iii. &= nbsp; Known as GhostScript
= c. = Plain text
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; i. &nb= sp; Not converted
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; ii. &n= bsp; Removes extra text and then given directly to LPR
= d. All of the filters server two puposes
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; i. &nb= sp; One is for the LPR
=
1. uses
filters to determine how to split the file up into control and data files
<=
span
style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs=
p; &=
nbsp; &nbs=
p; &=
nbsp; &nbs=
p; &=
nbsp; &nbs=
p; &=
nbsp; &nbs=
p; &=
nbsp; &nbs=
p;
ii. &n=
bsp;
= 1. uses filters to determine which printer to send the data to and how fast
= g. Archives & Packages
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; i. &nb= sp; Tarball
= 1. Takes several files puts them into one file and then compacts them
= 2. Typically distributed as source code
= 3. Must be compiled after they have been unpacked
= 4. Options
= a. = X – tells tar to extract the compressed files
= b. V – tells tar to display the tar names as they are extracted
= c. = F – specifies uncompressed files to be placed locally
= d. Z – filters the compressed files through gzip to decompress them
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; ii. &n= bsp; RPM
= 1. Used by non-Linux systems like Sun OS & Solaris
= 2. Red Hat Package Manager
= 3. I – command stands for install
= a. = Syntax – rpm –i adobeflash_09.rpm
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; iii. &= nbsp; Deb
= 1. Designed for Debian
= 2. Used by Debian, Storm Linux, Linux by LibraNet, & Corel Linux OS
= 3. dpkg – depackage debian files
= a. = Can install, configure, and remove packages
= b. Syntax – dpkg –deb
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; iv. &n= bsp; Check dependencies before installing programs, especially dependencies upon libraries
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; v. &nb= sp; Without those additional libraries the program will= not install
= h. Backup
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; i. &nb= sp; Epoc
= 1. Complete or full backup
= 2. Requires the most resouces
= a. = Time
= b. Tape space
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; ii. &n= bsp; Differential
= 1. Copies everything that has changed since the last Epoc backup
= 2. Successive backups become larger and larger with each passing day
= 3. Requires that you have at least one successful Epoc backup
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; iii. &= nbsp; Incremental
= 1. Builds on each incremental backup
= 2. Requires that you have at least one successful Epoc backup
= 3. Marks the archive flag
= a. = Only backs up data since the last incremental backup
= i. = Restore Time
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; i. &nb= sp; Epoc
= 1. Quickest
= a. = one restore and you’re done
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; ii. &n= bsp; Differential
= 1. Medium speed
= a. = Restore the last Epoc and the last differential backup and you’re done
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; iii. &= nbsp; Incremental
= 1. Slowest
= a. = Restore the last Epoc and each and every incremental since them
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; iv. &n= bsp; Backup utilities
= 1. Tar
= a. = Most common
= b. Must use the –z option to compress the files
= c. = Example
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; i. &nb= sp; Tar –cvf myfile.tar/usr/local/www
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; ii. &n= bsp; Puts everything in www into a file named ‘filename.tar’
<=
span
style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs=
p; &=
nbsp; &nbs=
p; &=
nbsp; &nbs=
p; &=
nbsp; &nbs=
p; &=
nbsp; &nbs=
p; &=
nbsp; &nbs=
p;
iii. &=
nbsp;
= 2. CPIO
= 3. Dump
= XXXVII. Networking
= a. = LAN
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; i. &nb= sp; Hardware
= 1. Repeaters
= a. = Amplify signals and transmit them to other destinations
= 2. Switches
= a. = Links different components to the network & selects a path to transmit data to it’s destination
= 3. Hubs
= a. = Devices to which all the computers, servers, printers, & other peripherals are = logically connected to form a network
= 4. Routers
= a. = Decides where the data has to be sent
= 5. Patch cables
= a. = Used to connect network cards to network devices
= 6. Network cards
= a. = Used to connect a computer to the network
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; ii. &n= bsp; Software (Network Files)
= 1. files required to provide network connectivity with Linux
= a. = /etc/hosts
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; i. &nb= sp; Responsible for keeping track of various computers = and devices on the network, their names and IP addresses
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; ii. &n= bsp; Used to resolve names rather than having to go to s= ome other source for name resolution
= b. /etc/resolv.conf
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; i. &nb= sp; Contains list of DNS servers
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; ii. &n= bsp; Tries the first DNS server, once that times out, it goes to the next, and so on
= b. IP Address
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; i. &nb= sp; 5 classes of TCP/IP addresses
= 1. Class A
= a. = 0.0.0.0 to 127.255.255.255
= 2. Class B
= a. = 128.0.0.0 to 191.255.255.255
= 3. Class C
= a. = 192.0.0.0 to 223.255.255.255
= b. Most commonly used in private networks, when a network must be divided into two subnets
= 4. Class D
= a. = 224.0.0.0 to 239.255.255.255
= b. Used for multi-casting
= 5. Class E
= a. = 240.0.0.0 to 255.255.255.255
= 6. Default routing (0.0.0.0) & loopback addresses (127.0.0.1)
= a. = The address 127.0.0.0 is assigned t= o the loopback interface, which is the local host
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; i. &nb= sp; Used to send data from a computer to a server that = is located on the same network
= b. The default route is used to transmit data to hosts and networks that are not listed in the routing table
= 7. IPs followed by all 255s are broadcast, so the network can’t use them
= 8. Each class has a private broadcast range that cannot be broadcast out into the w= orld wide web
= 9. Subnet
= a. = A group of hosts that all belong to= the same local network
= b. Each subnet is differentiated by the last octet of it’s IP address
= c. = TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol)
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; i. &nb= sp; Architecture
= 1. OSI model (7-layers)
= a. = Layer 1 – Application
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; i. &nb= sp; Acts as an interface between the application and the user
= b. Layer 2 – Presentation
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; i. &nb= sp; Formats the data according to it’s content
= c. = Layer 3 – Session
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; i. &nb= sp; Acts as a communication link between the Presentati= on and Transport layers throughout the session
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; ii. &n= bsp; Responsible for terminating the session at the end = of the transaction
= d. Layer 4 – Transport
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; i. &nb= sp; Breaks down large packets into smaller pieces
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; ii. &n= bsp; Arranges data into sequences and passes them to the Network layer
= e. = Layer 5 – Network
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; i. &nb= sp; Routes data from the source to the destination acro= ss the network
= f. = Layer 6 – Data-Link
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; i. &nb= sp; Responsible for physical addressing of the data
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; ii. &n= bsp; Checks for and reports any errors
= g. Layer 7 – Physical
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; i. &nb= sp; Responsible for transmitting the data across the physical medium, sometimes referred to as a wire or cable
= 2. TCP/IP DOD model (4 – layers)
= a. = Layer 1 – Application
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; i. &nb= sp; Does the job of the application, presentation, and = session layers of the OSI model
= b. Layer 2 – Transport
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; i. &nb= sp; Same as the OSI model transport layer. It provides end-to-end communication services between the hosts
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; ii. &n= bsp; Provides services for both connection oriented and connectionless networks.
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; iii. &= nbsp; Most commonly used protocols used at this layer are= TCP and UDP
= c. = Layer 3 – Internet
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; i. &nb= sp; Responsible for transporting data across different networks
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; ii. &n= bsp; Packages sometimes arrive out of order
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; iii. &= nbsp; Protocols for this layers are IP, ICMP, IGMP, ARP, = and RARP
= d. Layer 4 – Network Access
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; i. &nb= sp; Provides reliable transmission of data
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; ii. &n= bsp; Acts as a connection medium
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; iii. &= nbsp; Protocols used are Ethernet, FDDI, CDDI, Token ring, X25, ATM, and others
= d. Internet Layered Protocol
<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; i. &nb= sp; Internet Protocol (IP)
= 1.